ROLE OF WOMEN IN URBAN GOVERNANCE:A CASE STUDY ON WOMEN WARD COMMISSIONERS OF KHULNA CITY CORPORATION

1.1  BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

 In development theology the interest in governance has always been there but the focus has changed with the passage of time according to the need. Governance can be broadly defined as the services that governments provide to the governed (i.e., citizens) and the environment that is created within which the citizens can then operate. In this context, urban governance refers to the general manner in which a city is governed. It includes both the formal structures of urban government and administration and the practices of exercising management and power including the role of groups in civil society in the governing relationship. In recent years, a growing body of empirical research has identified good governance as the key to development progress.

A focus on local urban governance means that, beyond legal frameworks and international agreements, the geographies of human rights have to be acknowledged if they are to be realized in practice. The notion of human rights is linked to that of citizenship rights, which inevitably relates to localities (Lister, 1997). This spatial dimension of rights also has a gender aspect. Women’s right to work and the right to political participation can be abused by lack of freedom to move in space (Fenster, 1999).  The issue of women’s rights is closely related, therefore, to issues of public safety and gender violence. But very little direct attention has been given to women at the local level and their involvement and contribution to decision-making at city level. Even when women do enter local government, there is evidence of poor retention rates and high turnover, resulting from the difficulties women face in balancing their responsibilities at home and at work with their political engagement.

Those who have been excluded from decisions about managing cities and urban neighborhoods need to have their say. Each town and city, whether, in the North or in the South, can achieve good governance by ensuring that decisions are made for the collective good. But who is excluded? Typically, it might be the urban poor in informal neighborhoods in a city of the South, or ethnic minority groups in a city of the North. Yet something that North and South have in common is the need to include women in urban governance more than at present. Women are not a minority group. They are half of human power and they deserve to be heard. Partly because of their absence in decision-making, issues that affect women are often overlooked.

The changes of the twentieth century entailed pressure for the principles of human equality. These have at their core the principles of gender equality and the rights of women. Human equality is rooted in the ethical principles of the world’s different religions as well. The United Nations Charter, signed in 1945, embodies these principles in a formal international agreement. Numerous international agreements and declarations have followed, elaborating these norms and principles.[1]

Home and neighborhood are an integral part of urban governance, and that is where women are extremely active. If cities and neighborhoods are to be better governed, women had better be involved. This is why the inclusion of women in urban governance is a key normative principle for good urban governance. It is a principle not only because it is right but because it is practical and efficient. Including women in urban governance will make cities and urban neighborhoods work better. In households throughout the world women are used to cleaning up the mess left by other people. Too often this happens in informal settlements where public services are lacking. Research in cities of the South shows that, where women are not involved in public decision-making, the quality of services deteriorates. Women are often left to do the dirty work and, because the kind of work they do lacks status, they are seldom asked their opinions or chosen as leaders to speak in public. In the South as well as many places in the North, the goods and services needed and operated by women need to become central concerns of urban managers. At present, these are most often consigned to the informal sector and outside the realm of urban government. For example, local governments rarely address the supply of cheap domestic fuels like charcoal, or the potential of urban farming.[2]

                                                                                                                                                   Women have already made strides in urban governance. Networks and organizations have been successful in influencing housing policy in the Netherlands[3] and transport policy in Canada for example[4].The European Charter for Women in the City was developed in the last decade.[5] And the International Union of Local Authorities (IULA) has promulgated a Worldwide Declaration on Women in Local Government. The representation of women in local government is generally better than at the national level, but in no way equal to men’s representation. For example, in Africa, the percentage of women in local government is estimated at 5 %. In European countries, where women have a more visible role, the average percentage of women in municipal councils is 23 % (Division for the Advancement of Women). In Quebec, 9 % of city Mayors are women and only one city councilor in 5 is a women.[6]

The proportion of women in the local and central political decision-making bodies in the Middle East and the Mediterranean region is very low. Even in Turkey, which is the only country in the region where women have been granted equal rights within the family and in the public arena, the general municipal elections held in 1994 confirmed women’s marginal position in local politics: out of the 2,815 Mayors elected across Turkey, only 13 were women (0.46 %) (International Union of Local Authorities).[7]

If the good urban governance campaign norms of equity and civic engagement are to be met, women's active participation in public institutions must be secured. Policies to facilitate the involvement of women in decision-making are needed, not only within public institutions, but also within civil society. Much of the current thinking on women in the decision-making process has been framed by international agreements such as CEDAW, the Beijing Platform for Action and the Habitat Agenda. Notwithstanding these international norms and standards, UNDP's Gender Empowerment Measure of February 1999 indicates that the anticipated standards have not as yet been met.

Bangladesh has recently gone through major changes which are conducive to the development of transparent and accountable governance. Women’s participation in local government has been enhanced by current institutional and legal frameworks that has enabled and provided for women's inclusion in the councils. However, it should be noted that this is only a drop of sugar in a basin of water, many of the women at the grass roots still find no opportunity to use these provisions either due to poverty, ignorance or subordination. To remove the imbalance situation between men and women the present Government has taken some steps. In these steps, women’s participation in every sphere of national development has specified and it also be declared that in the age of law all are equal and there will be no inequality among them.

Despite the above achievements, women continue to face some major problems in governance. The involvement of women in urban governance is very low. The present procedures and processes through which women of the Parliament work hinder their

effective role in ensuring the accountability of the Executive branch - non-functioning committees, inadequate facilities for MPs, and lack of adequate opportunities for MPs to review and discuss policy issues and options in a rational manner instead of an environment of political polarization. The systems of financial accountability need to be reformed. Women’s incorporation in urban governance is an appreciable step. The government of Bangladesh and different national and international agencies have adopted and implement different social, political and economic plans and programmes in the last three decades. In spite of these, very little attention has been given to women at the local level and their involvement in urban governance. In this study, therefore, two aspects of the theme have been particularly emphasized: the role of Women Ward Commissioners as decision-makers and city managers, and the need to identify and address urban governance related issues which concerns the Women Ward Commissioners of a metropolitan city in Bangladesh namely Khulna City Corporation (KCC).

1.2  STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

Urban governance in turn can only be effective with the involvement of women alongside men. Women and men experience and use the urban environment in different ways and often have different priorities in terms of urban services and infrastructure. These differences can only properly be understood with reference to prevailing construction of gender. Women in governance are also necessary to promote gender and income equality, to achieve socio-economic emancipation and to realize social justice and equitable development with rapid economic growth. In cities across the globe, with a few exceptions, there is an absence of women in local decision making processes. Because many people think it is better for men to go to meetings and make decisions. But surely, if the things at home and in the neighborhood need managing and organizing, then the people who do it should certainly be qualified to make decisions. It is for this reason that this research paper concerned itself with the two key aspects: women ward commissioner's increased role in local decision-making, and issues of concern to women commissioners in local governance.

Women’s participation in politics at national level and at local level is very much needed to strengthen democracy. The Constitution of Bangladesh provides for formal equality of men and women. Women are entitled to the same fundamental rights as men. Article 10 of the Constitution ensures participation of women in all spheres of national life. Article 65(3) provides for reserved seats for women in the parliament and Article 9 promotes the special representation of women in local government. There are some research works done on women’s problems in urban life, like women’s housing, employment, health, transport and women’s safety issues. In many development works, the gender issue gets priority nowadays. However, there is no regular event or programme being introduced for the Women Ward Commissioners to be aware of gender issues. Although some the women commissioners have attended international conferences occasionally.

In the democratic system of the country, the over all development of men and women depend on the relationship between them and development system of the country, production, property distribution, politics and the strategy of the country direction. But in the context of Bangladesh, the half of the humanity do not capable to fulfill women’s right. To ensure the inclusion of women in the governing system of the country, although governance point of view is positive but different action of government is not efficient for women involvement in governance.  Women need to be more involved in discussions which have an impact on their urban environment. In the governing system women’s involvement is necessary and it is also necessary to provide them opportunity and advantage so that they can easily remove their problems and can governed the city and city dwellers. Because it is true that though every year government have taken different actions for women but in urban governance the overall situation of women is not so good. This is the fact of selecting this topic “Role of Women in Urban Governance”. The main reason of this study is to know about the role of Women Ward Commissioners in urban governance which means what’s role Women Ward Commissioners can play in urban governance and what are the problems they faced in such situation.

1.3 OBJECTIVES

1. To identify the existing role played by the Women Ward Commissioners of Khulna City Corporation in respect of planning, development and administration.
2. To identify the problems thereof faced by the Women Ward Commissioners of Khulna City Corporation.

1.4 RESEARCH QUESTIONS

1)    What is the background of Women Ward Commissioners in Khulna City Corporation?

2)    What are the Constitutional roles to be played by Women Ward Commissioners of Khulna City Corporation?

3)    What are the problems faced by the Women Ward Commissioners in respect of planning, development and administration in the City Corporation?

4)    Why women were not effectively involved in urban decision-making process of the City Corporation?

5)    What keeps them away from being included in urban governance matters?

1.5 SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY

The study offers the scope of generating a baseline about the existing situation of Women Ward Commissioners of Khulna City Corporation which may further be used by the relevant researchers to assess the authority near future concentrating to women issues if they are improving the existing situation of Women Ward Commissioners or not. This study have also achieved some insights, and have come across questions and subjects that should require more intensive and in depth research in future so that women’s position in urban governance can be properly evaluated.

Due to the time and communication problems, in this study 12 Women Ward Commissioners from Khulna City Corporation as the respondents were interviewed for this research. Compared to all the Women Ward Commissioner of Bangladesh, 12 is not a representative number at all. The issue of urban governance covers a large number of characteristic, which all didn’t become possible to consider in this study. Due to lack of co-ordination from Ward Commissioners (general seat) some necessary issues are not also considered in this study.

1.6 OPERATIONAL DEFINITIONS OF THE TERMS USED

Ø  Governance

Governance refers to the manner in which power is exercised in the management of a country’s economic and social resources for development. Governance issues include considerations of the form of the political authority which other ways means the authority that is exercised and the ability to assert authority in the society.[8] It means process of decision-making and the process by which decisions are implemented.

Ø  Urban Governance

Urban Governance refers to the general manner in which a city is governed. It includes both the formal structures of urban government and administration and the practices of exercising management and power, including the role of groups in civil society in the governing relationship.

Ø  Good Governance

Governance is the manner in which power is exercised by Governments in the management of a country’s social and economic resources. Good Governance is the exercise of power by various levels of Government that is effective, honest, equitable, transparent and accountable. 

 Ø  Government

The term government is being confined increasingly to the formal structures of representatives and officials established to co-ordinate and oversee the functions of the governance.

Ø  Local government

The term local government refers to a political sub-division of a nation or state which is constituted by law and substantial control over local affairs including power of imposing taxes. It can also be defined as a public organization authorized to decide and administer a limited range of public policies within a relatively small territory which is a sub-division of a national territory. 

Ø  City Corporation

Each City Corporation is governed by an elected Mayor and a number of Elected Commissioners. The Women Ward Commissioners are elected by the Commissioners. All the City Corporations are to be divided into zones whose number is to be decided by the Government. The terms of the Mayors and the Commissioners are five Years, beginning from the day of the City Corporations Fast Meeting after elections. The qualifications and disqualifications for being Commissioners and Women Commissioners of the City Corporations are similar.

Ø  Election

Election as a method of choosing the people’s representatives was introduced in the local government system of this subcontinent since the later part of the 10^th century. It has been recognised as a more legitimate process for filling in various local government positions. In adopting the principle of elections, Bangladesh inherited both direct and indirect methods. Direct elections mean election on the basis of adult franchise where the voters are directly allowed to participate in the election and elect their representatives. In the case of indirect elections, the voter’s do not directly participate in the election of their representatives but choose only a intermediary body. In Bangladesh, the election of the local government bodies is direct.

Ø  Reserved Seat

The provision of reserved seats was created to promote women’s involvement in local government and wider politics. The Pourashava Ordinance and City Corporation Ordinance, 1994 stipulate that whatever the number of ward commissioner, depending on the area of the Pourashava and City Corporation; there should be reserved seats, exclusively for women equivalent to one third of the number of commissioners fixed by the government. The women ward commissioner will be elected directly. Any person can contest for the commissioner’s seat, but the reserved seats are only for women to contest.

1.7 CHAPTER OUTLINE

In pursuit of fulfilling of the objectives of the research, eight chapters were organized to present and comprehend all the research findings and ultimate results.

CHAPTER ONE starts with the background and statement of the problem identification of the research, objectives, scope and limitations, literature review, operational definitions, and terminates with structure of dissertation.

CHAPTER TWO embodies pertaining to the methodology of the research work. This chapter, in fact, includes the total work plan and procedure for the completion of the study.

CHAPTER THREE is devoted to the overall situation of Bangladesh, its political system and governance. It inaugurates the origin and evaluation of urban governance and the importance of urban governance in Bangladesh. In this chapter the importance of women’s participation in urban governance, their achievements, challenges and barriers are also discussed.

CHAPTER FOUR expresses the participation and representation of women in urban local governments in context of Bangladesh. Women’s representations are discussed here in context of legal and political initiatives.

CHAPTER FIVE contains the socio-economic profile of the study area. In this chapter the location, area and population of Khulna City Corporation and the governing system of that area are concerned.

CHAPTER SIX encompasses the socio-economic and demographic status of Women Ward Commissioners of Khulna City Corporation by their age, educational status, occupations, marital status, kin relations and political connections.

CHAPTER SEVEN includes the functions of the Women Ward Commissioners of Khulna City Corporations in accordance to ordinance of City Corporation and the roles actually played by the Women Ward Commissioners of Khulna City Corporation.

CHAPTER EIGHT includes the problems of Women Ward Commissioners of Khulna City Corporations while performing their activities and the differences of their working environment and gender discrimination for Women Ward Commissioners of Khulna City Corporation.

CHAPTER NINE provides some concluding remarks and measures in order to improve the existing situation of Women Ward Commissioners and to involve more women in planning and development activities of a country.

1.8 LITERATURE REVIEW

Literature review is a continuous process that helps building the conceptual and theoretical framework about the work. It also helps in examining previous experiences in related fields and to identify the knowledge gap in the field of proposed research. However, a number of books and studies for taking basic theories, some manual and guidelines for ensuring role of women in urban governance and few other available relevant studies in Bangladesh are reviewed for the purpose of the present study. The studies and previous works are reviewed in the following sequential order:

Books

Nazrul Islam (Professor of Geography and Environment at the University of Dhaka and Honorary Chairman of the Centre for Urban Studies) and Mohammad Mohabbat khan (Professor, Department of Public Administration, University of Dhaka) in their book “Urban Governance in Bangladesh and Pakistan” described the importance of governance in the context of changed role of the state. Urban governance in Bangladesh is in the crisis. In this book the writers indicate the dominant presence of the government in the urban scene. Little opportunities exist for the urban local government bodies to take meaningful initiatives and actions in matters which adversely affect the daily lives of citizens like water, electricity, gas, sewerage, and law and order.

Nazrul Islam in another book “Urban Governance in Asia”: sub-regional and city perspectives, defined urban governance as two senses. In the first sense, it meant action, method or function of governing. In the second sense it included action or manner of governing.

Mohammad Ghulam Murtaza in his book “Urban governance in Bangladesh”, encompasses the constitutional provisions, legal framework, municipalization aspects, finance, inter-institutional and planning and other pertaining aspects of the present urban local governments in Bangladesh as far as urban administration and management is concerned.

Kamal Siddiqui in his book “Local government in Bangladesh” defined local government and explained the strengths, weaknesses and problems of local governments. The chapter on evolution of local government in Bangladesh was thoroughly revised in the light of new historical research on ancient and medieval Bengal. The reports of two recent commissions on local government were also summarized in this chapter. Finally in the last chapter, major issues and problems on local governments were exhaustively deals with.

Kamal Siddiqui in another book “Local governance in Bangladesh”: ‘Leading issues and major challenges’, concentrates on the strategies need at the local level. The governance crisis in Bangladesh is now acute. After the end of the dictatorial regime in 1990, many in Bangladesh hoped that there would be all around governance reforms in the country, involving the political system, the central governments, the local government bodies and the civil society. However the fact is that despite repeated lip service by the powerful, valuable little has been done by way of governance reforms during the last one decade. As a result Bangladesh has entered the new millennium in a rather regretful state. In such a situation, the strategy should be to concentrate on the local level. This book is an attempt to give this strategy a concrete shape.

Kamal Siddiqui, Jamshed Ahmed, Abdul Awal and Mustaque Ahmed in the book “Overcoming the governance crisis in Dhaka city” analyzed the major governance problems of Dhaka cities and propose a set of realistic recommendations towards their solutions. The spatila structure sof dhka city is a function of many factors, including history, natural and topographical features, the land market, housing and resettlement policies, the transportation system and, to a lesser extent, industrial location policies. The study is relevant for a better understanding of the management of mega cities throughout the developing world. It also describes the interrelation ship between the central government and the service provider of Dhaka city.

Gilbert, Richard and Stevenson Don and Girardet Herbert and Stren Richard, in their book “Making Cities Work”: The role of local authorities in the urban environment outlined some of the practical measures that local authorities all over the world have initiated, and the policies that will help them to take this work further. It is intended for people everywhere who are interested in local and global environmental issues and in how these issues are being and can be addressed by local governments around the work. The main argument is that local authorities should be at the centre of work concerning the urban environment. It shows how this is happening in many places, and how much more can be done in pursuit of sustainable development, particularly through cooperation among local governments around the world.

Salma Ahmed in his book “Governance and Nari” defined the law and order of government about women. This book represents the role of women in governance and different types of action declared by the government for women but not implemented properly.

Seminar papers and other publications

The definition of governance and some basic characteristics of urban governance are stated in the paper “Urban Governance in the Developing World” organized by Global Urban Research Initiative (GURI) in association with Centre for Urban Studies (CUS), Dhaka. This paper discusses the determinants of urban governance and issues in governance in Bangladesh. It basically works with the definition of governance as a system of governing which is concerned with the nature of relationship between the state and the civil society. Although Bangladesh is still at low levels of urbanization, the absolute size of urban population in the country is large and problems of urban development complex. Hence urban governance is important. A number of key issues in urban governance are identified and discussed in some detail in this paper. The issues are urban poverty, resource mobilization, urban land, urban planning and urban environment.

Some basic characteristics of good governance are stated in the concept paper “Good Governance” edited by Hasnat Abdul Hye. This paper includes a conceptual framework of “Governance.” The objectives of the seminar is to delineate the manner in which the formal organs can play out their historic role in promoting good governance through improvement in their day to day activities and through promotion  of the civil society including the private sector

Empowerment of urban poor women is an important priority in UNCHS (Habitat)’s activities. In the World Habitat day the theme “Women in Urban governance” (Sustainable development networking problem, UNDP, Bangladesh) was selected by UNDP under the Sustainable Development Networking Program. They defined that two things need to be done in order to address this theme effectively for better urban governance:

• Involve more women as urban decision-makers
• Address urban issues that affect women.

Habitat’s campaign for good urban governance is determined to ensure women’s grassroots initiatives are responded to by inclusive structures of urban government. Inclusive urban government has to be gender sensitive. This means that both women and men are involved in decision-making.

Diana Lee-Smith in her paper “Women’s Role in Urban Governance” (World Habitat Day)’Diana Lee-Smith is Coordinator of UNCHS (Habitat)’s Gender Unit’ described that women need to be more involved in discussions which have an impact on their urban environment. Women are not a minority group. They are half of humanity. The trend towards greater inclusion of women in public life is one of the great historical shifts of the twentieth century, and it is ongoing as we enter the new millennium. In earlier eras of human development, women were more associated with home and domestic life and men with public life and decision-making.

 “Bangladesh report, 11/02/02” represents the overall condition of women in urban governance. In the first phase of this report shows the brief description of Bangladesh including socio-economic condition, politics and Governance, participation and representation of women in politics. In the second phase it shows women’s participation in urban local governance. Including gender sensitization in urban local government, legal and political initiatives, training and support mechanism of women in urban local government.

Professor Dr. Md. Ghulam Murtaza in his paper “Governance in Bangladesh” describes the details of governance in terms of its meaning, theoretical aspects, typologies contents, subjects and perspectives. The study is aimed at examining emerging concepts of good governance and provides a conceptual framework for defining good governance. In this paper, Governance refers to a political process that encompasses the whole society and contributes to the making of citizens, active contributors to the social contract that binds them together. This study also specified the eight major characteristics of good governance. It is participatory, consensus oriented, accountable, transparent, responsive, effective and efficient, equitable and inclusive and follows the rule of law.

G. Shabbir Cheema in her report “Governance Program in Bangladesh” describes the context of governance in Bangladesh. Section III reviews the areas of on-going development cooperation in public management for good governance and those areas for which the Government has formally requested UNDP assistance. Section IV suggests a strategic framework for UNDP program interventions/components. The final section identifies follow-up actions for program development. The main conclusions of this report are that (a) the proposed areas of intervention for which the Government has requested support provide a unique opportunity to UNDP to build its niche in this important field; (b) new project documents need to be prepared dealing with support to the Parliament, support to the urban poor at the community level, and financial management as a tool for accountability, each based on an immediate and rigorous needs assessment, and (c) a Program Document on Public Management for Good Governance should be prepared based on the above and related components which would provide a useful monitoring tool as well as a mechanism for UNDP's substantive visibility.

“A policy paper on women and urban governance” was published in 20 November 2000 by UNCHS (Habitat). This paper addresses two aspects. One is women’s increased representation in local decision-making. The second is greater attention to issues of concern to women. While the emphasis is on the need for empowerment of women, the policy goal is gender equality, meaning the involvement of both women and men, and attention to issues of concern to both. This paper presents the policy implications emerging from analysis. The important issues that policy needs to address are outlined in relation to current ongoing efforts to address them. Each policy issue is summarized for discussion based on the points emerging from the paper. Efforts to address it so far are also briefly presented. The options listed for consideration are mostly directed at actions that could be taken by central and local governments. The constraints on implementation are briefly summarized to clarify difficulties that may be experienced in implementing proposed policy directions. These may also be due to lack of wide consensus on the issue. The policy issue format is used to facilitate debate and discussion around each policy area identified.

“National Framework for Women in Local Government” was prepared by Commonwealth Office of the Status of Women: Australian Local Government Women's Association (ALGWA), November 2001. This Framework has been developed following a national consultation, in recognition that more needs to be done to increase women's participation in Local Government decision-making. Recent State and national initiatives have substantially informed the Framework. It is also acknowledged that there have been many people, male and female, who have supported these women and have encouraged them to contribute to serving local communities in both elected and officer roles. The issues raised and the strategies to address them are proposed to assist women to reach their full potential as decision-makers.

A research work on Urban Governance, Partnership and Poverty has done in November 2000 by Philip Amis and Ursula Gran. This research is concerned with the relationship between urban governance (in the widest sense) and urban poverty. The research illustrates the importance of the linkages between social capital, the creation of growth coalitions, and political democratic structures combined with administrative capacity as well as financial decentralization, in supporting urban economic growth. However, these are conditions that underpin growth which is not the same as growth which is poverty reducing and/or direct poverty alleviation schemes. What is the relationship between urban economic growth and poverty, and how can municipal governments influence the impact of urban economic growth on their poorest citizens? This research has been examining this relationship through a comparative analysis of nine city case studies. An asset/ vulnerability framework was used to illustrate the multiple and varied impacts of economic growth on the lives of the poor.

Kuruhiira Godfrey Metuseera Ajuna Akiiki presented a paper on Achievements and Challenges of Women in Local Governments at the world's women congress 2002 which was organized by the Department of Gender Studies and Development. This paper represents that women's participation in local government has been enhanced by current institutional and legal framework that has enabled and provided for women's inclusion in the councils. However it should be noted that this is only a drop of sugar in a basin of water, many of the women at the grass roots still find no opportunity to use these provisions either due to poverty, ignorance or subordination. Therefore, women's leaders, civil society organizations and government still have the task of creating awareness to the women and the entire population on why we need women on leadership. Becoming a leader demands for skills and knowledge, therefore women in leadership in local government should continuously be supported to build their capacity not only to stand to challenges of leadership but above the times. Such challenges if reduced would enable them effectively articulate the women's agendas since what is important is effective influence women leaders can make in politics and decision making than the numbers they constitute.

SNV, Netherlands Development organization, produced a manual on Gender and Local governance - an overview of the literature and websites on gender and governance processes, underlining strategies and best practices. Special emphasis is given on local governance in the region of West Africa, as it serves as a base for pilot projects concerning gender and local governance in this region. In SNV terms Local Governance Processes concern the processes through which local stakeholders interact in determining the local development agenda and in managing resources to implement the development priorities. Particular attention is paid to women’s interest. This paper illustrates that without women’s needs and interests being taken into account, without opportunity for them to participate in and influence decision-making, development interventions and planning will not achieve sustainable results. For reasons of justice, efficiency and diversity, and to change the political system women’s active participation is essential. With a more human and gender-sensitive political approach citizens get more confidence in politics.

Almost all the authors and researchers have considered the necessity of women’s participation in urban local governance. Women’s active participation is essential for planning and development of a city. Women’s participation in politics at national level and at local level is very much needed to strengthen democracy. Urban governance in turn can only be effective with the involvement of women alongside men. Women in governance are necessary to promote gender and income equality, to achieve socio-economic emancipation and to realize social justice and equitable development with rapid economic growth. For reasons of justice, efficiency and diversity, and to change the governmental system women’s active participation is essential. It is often easier for women to participate in local affairs than at the national level, because eligibility criteria for the local level are less stringent. It can also be said that local government is the closest to the women’s sphere of life. It can be the first level that women can break into and as such it may serve as a springboard to national politics, by developing their capacities and gaining experiences.